Basics 21: Literary Genre-Poetry

Concrete Example

Even if no one else thinks I’m that funny, at least I amuse myself. Did you see what I did there? We’re going to talk about poetry and I said I have a concrete example. If you were to hermeneutically examine those two words together, what do they mean? Can you take them literally? Would you arrive at my intended meaning?

This is why understanding poetry as a genre of literature is crucial for a student of the Word. If we don’t correctly identify this genre, or if we incorrectly identify some other genre as poetry, we will potentially misunderstand the intended meaning of the author.

As a genre of literature, biblical poetry has only been recognized in the recent past. I don’t see the timeline in his textbook, but I remember hearing Dr. Stein in one of his lectures saying that scholars understanding poetry as a literary form is a relatively new observation, like the last 50-100 years. Let’s take a few minutes here together to join them in having a better understanding of the Word.

Visual Clues

Most modern translations into English make this observation simple. The editors don’t use the typical paragraphs of prose, but have the text broken into stanzas. Have you noticed this? Let’s look at an example from the ESV.

• the most important feature is parallelism, or rhythmic balance between different lines
• terseness
• lines of sentences tend to be much shorter in comparison to the lines found in prose
• the lines also tend to be of equal length, whereas in prose there is great variety in the size of sentences
• tends to be disinclined to use conjunctions (and, or, but) and particles (In a recent study it was pointed out that Hebrew prose tends to use the sign of the direct object [’et], the relative pronoun [’asher], and the definite article [ha] six to eight times more than Hebrew poetry.)
• inclined to use figurative language, that is, nonliteral figures of speech¹

These are some of the characteristics scholars use to identify this genre for us.

Literally What the Author Intended

Dr. Stein explains that the author of poetry intends to evoke emotion from his reader rather than convey scientifically or historically accurate data. Even from the little example from above, Exodus explains what happened to both the Hebrews and the Egyptians. To explain the same historical event, Isaiah only paints a picture of how the Hebrews came through the event. The Egyptians were there, but Isaiah’s intent is to explain and evoke emotions about God’s dealings directly with his people.

You can see a more detailed example of the Red Sea event laid out subsequent to my little example in Exodus 15. As you can imagine, the redeemed had much worship of the God who delivered them, so it’s a lengthy amount of poetry that I will give you a minute to read.

See the comparison between the two types of literature? Did God really toss those Egyptians into the sea (Exodus 15:1)? I thought they walked out there on their own. Were the Egyptians consumed like stubble (Exodus 15:7)? Wasn’t it a soggy death? God’s nostrils blasted (Exodus 15:8)? Now God is a spirit and not a man; he has no nostrils.

And yet this poetic representation of the Red Sea parting is exactly what God wanted his author to convey. The imagery would forever be etched into the mind of the Hebrew if they continued to remember the Word of God throughout generations.

Now there are dozens, probably hundreds, of examples all through scripture of poetic “license” that was taken as the record of God’s story was written. As you read your Bible, keep an eye out and see if you can identify imagery and use it to identify the genre of poetry.

Poetic Forms

Within the genre of poetry, there are forms. What we discuss will not be exhaustive, but what I have found to be one of the most revolutionary and beneficial ideas thus far as I learn the art and science of hermeneutics.

In English, poetry is often created with the use of both rhythm and sounds, isn’t it? There is a meter the author uses as well as often the use of rhyme. “I’m a poet and didn’t know it” is a silly little line I’ve said when I accidentally rhyme words in my speech. Well, in ancient Hebrew poetry, they didn’t use rhyme so much. However, they used rhythm extensively, and they also used another technique. Parallelism. We will briefly touch 4 main types of parallelism.

Synonymous Parallelism

This type of parallelism occurs all over in scripture and is particularly useful to me when I find them and one of the lines is difficult to understand. The example I’m using here isn’t one that is hard to understand because I’d like you to be able to readily see what I mean. But keep this tool in mind.

The LORD bless you and keep you; 
the LORD make his face to shine upon you and be gracious to you; 
the LORD lift up his countenance upon you and give you peace.2

In this example, God was telling Moses to teach Aaron and the rest to speak this benediction over Israel. As we look at it, there are three lines. Each of the lines means basically the same thing. So in order to interpret what the blessing actually involves, we can take each line in turn and use each to understand more fully what the other lines mean.

To bless and keep is the same benefit as having his face to shine upon you and be gracious as well as give you peace. If you’ve heard of the beatific vision, this is one of the places it’s mentioned. Having God’s countenance toward me, shining on me, this is the Hebrew definition of God’s grace and peace. Therefore, being blessed and kept is also having his face upon me. In all regards, this is the best condition a human can hope to have on the earth.

For a NT example and to make sure the concept of this type of parallelism is clear, I will bring a paragraph of Dr. Stein’s book here:

Similarly, if we want to know what it means to love our enemies, we can find insight and help from the parallel lines of Luke 6:27–28. By knowing that these four lines are an example of synonymous parallelism, we are able to understand the less-clear statements by the more-clear. To love our enemies primarily means to do loving acts. The four parallel lines do not speak of emotions. They speak of the Christian doing loving acts of kindness toward his or her enemies. This is why Jesus can command his followers to love their enemies. He appeals not to the emotions of his followers but to their wills, which he can command to do loving acts of kindness.3

Antithetical Parallelism

As I was first learning about hermeneutics, I read Proverbs of the Day aloud at breakfast and discuss them. You know, if it’s the 10th of the month, I’d read Proverbs 10. Pastor Brian Haynes challenged the congregation one Sunday morning and I read a chapter of Proverbs every morning for 5 years. You might think that boring, but we KNEW Proverbs. Plus it made for interesting conversation!

Dr. Stein states that this is the most common form in the Bible. “In Jesus’ teachings alone we have over 130 examples. In Proverbs there are entire chapters (10–15) that are devoted to this literary form.”³

Here are a few examples:

A slack hand causes poverty, but the hand of the diligent makes rich.4

Whoever is steadfast in righteousness will live, but he who pursues evil will die.5

And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.6

Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away.7

Can you see how understanding of the one option is made more clear by the antithetical statement of the other?

Step or Climactic Parallelism

This type of parallelism is one I’m still learning about and working on identifying. Oh, I just read that this is not a form that is frequently found in scripture, so that would explain why I don’t feel like I have as much experience with it.

Dr. Stein offers some examples in his textbook and I grabbed one of them.

“The one who hears you hears me, 
and the one who rejects you rejects me, 
and the one who rejects me rejects him who sent me.”8

Similar in content is this verse which I found as a cross reference:

Whoever receives you receives me, 
and whoever receives me receives him who sent me. 9

In this type of parallelism, we can see a proposition is made. Then in the next thought an escalation of that proposition is affirmed. In the Luke example, there is even an antithetical parallel as part of the step parallelism. It’s a twofer! From that example we learn that hearing is the opposite of rejecting. And then Jesus goes the step further to say that rejection of the 72 (you can go look at the context of the Lukian example) is a rejection of Jesus himself. Step parallelism.

Chiastic Parallelism

This is the last form we will discuss here. There are others, but as Stein says, some of them are not easily identifiable and therefore difficult to discuss without stirring confusion. We’ll give the scholars more time to dig around in the original languages to understand those forms before we try to tackle them here.

In the chiastic form, to help us understand better, this is so named because of the Greek letter chi. It transliterates to the English letter X. So in this type of parallelism, the concepts form a literary X. Let’s look at a couple of examples Dr. Stein found for us.

A Whoever exalts himself
B will be humbled,
Bʹ and whoever humbles himself
Aʹ will be exalted. (Matt. 23:12)

In Matthew 6:24 we find a triple chiasmus:
 A No one can serve two masters,
 B for either he will hate the one
 C and love the other,
 Cʹ or he will be devoted to the one
 Bʹ and despise the other.
 Aʹ You cannot serve both God and money.10

See how the form goes? ABB’A’? It makes an X. In the Matthew example, it’s also an example of antithetical parallelism at the same time.

The Way of Negation

Which reminds me of another oft used literary device: the way of negation. I will only mention it in passing because I’m not certain it even is poetry, but it is common and we should be aware of it. In God’s Word, there is frequently the need to speak in terms of the negative because the only thing humans can relate to is the thing we know. Examples are when we are trying to understand God’s character and nature or what is evil. Words like infinite and immutable to understand God. Or unholy and unrighteous to consider evil.

Not Numerology

As I am meeting with you to discuss this literary genre, I’m beginning a study of Amos. Amos begins his writings with a series of for three transgressions…and for four and then he declares what will happen. Through the reading of Proverbs for 5 years to my kids every morning, I noticed this in Proverbs 30:15-16, 18-19, 21-23, 29-31. There’s another I found in Job 5:19 while investigating these number ladders. So I investigated both the idea of the number ladder and the number four.

Previously, we’ve heard of seven being the number of completion, right? The NET gives us a translator note in Job 5:19 to explain the poetic meaning of the six//seven situation. I brought it here for you to see.

In the OT

But in scripture, the number four is an important number as well, as we observe in Amos’s three//four ladders. From Mounce, ““Four” is a common number in the Bible, just as it is in our society. There are four points of the compass (east, south, west, north), four winds (Dan 8:8), four corners in a house (Job 1:19), four corners of the earth (Isa 11:12), and the four spirits of heaven (Zech 6:5). The expression “three, yes four” (e.g., Prov 30:15, 18, 21, 24, 29; Amos 1:3, 6, 9, etc.) is a means of building a climax through poetic symmetry.”¹¹

In the NT

As I prepare to study Amos, I focus primarily on the OT usage, however the Bible is a cohesive unit so I don’t want to shut my eyes to how it’s used in the NT. Mounce goes on to define the Greek word for four. “Tessares simply means the number “four.” It is used both literally and symbolically.”¹¹ Continuing in the entry, there are examples of the numeric sense like the paralytic having his four pallet-carriers and that Jesus’ garments were divided four ways indicating four soldiers. In this brief overview of poetry, I’m more interested in the symbolic and poetic sense of the word.

(2) tessares can also used in a symbolic sense, usually in connection with the idea of “the four corners of the earth” (Rev 20:8) or related phrases, such as “the four winds” (Mt 24:31). Both phrases mean “from all over the earth.” That is, the elect will be gathered from all over the earth, Jew and Gentile. In this sense, it is prophetic (cf. Isa 11:12).
 Sometimes tessares is both numeric and symbolic. For example, in Acts 10:11, the four corners of the sheet in Peter’s vision refers to the actual corners of the sheet, but they may also be symbolic since the sheet is part of a vision given to the apostle. In Rev 4:6, John sees four living creatures, but they are symbolic in the context of this book (cf. also 7:1–2).12

So the number four is a little like a merism in some usages. Only instead of opposites (two extremes) encapsulating all, there are four. Separate from the importance of the number four, the number ladders are a way for the author to say there is always more.

Wrap Up

In my investigation there are some points that help to understand the authorial intent when he writes in the poetic form.

• Majority of modern English translations have visual clues
• Uses identifiable forms/devices to aid in interpretation
• Terse
• Intends to evoke emotion rather than convey scientific/historical details
• Uses numbers for illustration

Keeping this list in mind will help us as students of the Word to rightly divide. I know that interpreting “literally” is important, but only as the author intended.

If we refer back to scriptures where there is a factual account and elsewhere an emotional account of the same event, is one more right than the other? Or does the author have different purposes in his writing? We want to remember that if we read and interpret poetry literally, we are literally wrong as students of the Word. It’s not the text that has the problem, it is us.

Thanks for studying with me today! If you’ve found anything helpful here, please like and subscribe. And if you know of other students of the Word, would you please share so we can all study and encourage each other with what we’re learning?

1. Stein, R. H. (2011). A Basic Guide to Interpreting the Bible: Playing by the Rules (Second Edition, p. 109). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
2. Numbers 6:24–26 (ESV)
3. Stein, R. H. (2011). A Basic Guide to Interpreting the Bible: Playing by the Rules (Second Edition, p. 119). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
4. Proverbs 10:4 (ESV)
5. Proverbs 11:19 (ESV)
6. Matthew 6:13 (ESV)
7. Luke 21:33 (ESV)
8. Luke 10:16 (ESV)
9. Matthew 10:40 (ESV)
10. Stein, R. H. (2011). A Basic Guide to Interpreting the Bible: Playing by the Rules (Second Edition, p. 121). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
11. Mounce, W. D. (2006). Mounce’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old & New Testament Words (p. 270). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
12. Mounce, W. D. (2006). Mounce’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old & New Testament Words (pp. 270–271). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.